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Chapter 30 Section 30.4: The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence – Survey of Astronomy
p id=fs-id1163974708469Welcome to em data-effect=italicsAstronomy/em, an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written to increase student access to high-quality learning materials, maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost./psection id=fs-id1163975465865 data-depth=1h3 data-type=titleAbout OpenStax/h3p id=fs-id1163975459361OpenStax is a nonprofit based at Rice University, and it’s our mission to improve student access to education. Our first openly licensed college textbook was published in 2012 and our library has since scaled to over 25 books for college and APsup®/sup courses used by hundreds of thousands of students. OpenStax Tutor, our low-cost personalized learning tool, is being used in college courses throughout the country. Through our partnerships with philanthropic foundations and our alliance with other educational resource organizations, OpenStax is breaking down the most common barriers to learning and empowering students and instructors to succeed./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975429268 data-depth=1h3 data-type=titleAbout OpenStax resources/h3section id=fs-id1163975382769 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleCustomization/h4p id=fs-id1163975727583em data-effect=italicsAstronomy/em is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY) license, which means that you can distribute, remix, and build upon the content, as long as you provide attribution to OpenStax and its content contributors./pp id=fs-id1163975413245Because our books are openly licensed, you are free to use the entire book or pick and choose the sections that are most relevant to the needs of your course. Feel free to remix the content by assigning your students certain chapters and sections in your syllabus, in the order that you prefer. You can even provide a direct link in your syllabus to the sections in the web view of your book./pp id=fs-id1168584325502Instructors also have the option of creating a customized version of their OpenStax book. The custom version can be made available to students in low-cost print or digital form through their campus bookstore. Visit your book page on OpenStax.org for more information./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163974449790 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleErrata/h4p id=fs-id1163975449606All OpenStax textbooks undergo a rigorous review process. However, like any professional-grade textbook, errors sometimes occur. Since our books are web based, we can make updates periodically when deemed pedagogically necessary. If you have a correction to suggest, submit it through the link on your book page on OpenStax.org. Subject-matter experts review all errata suggestions. OpenStax is committed to remaining transparent about all updates, so you will also find a list of past errata changes on your book page on OpenStax.org./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975723853 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleFormat/h4p id=fs-id1163975286518You can access this textbook for free in web view or PDF through OpenStax.org, and for a low cost in print./p/section/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975705562 data-depth=1h3 data-type=titleAbout em data-effect=italicsAstronomy/em/h3p id=fs-id1163972087543em data-effect=italicsAstronomy/em is written in clear non-technical language, with the occasional touch of humor and a wide range of clarifying illustrations. It has many analogies drawn from everyday life to help non-science majors appreciate, on their own terms, what our modern exploration of the universe is revealing. The book can be used for either a one-semester or two-semester introductory course (bear in mind, you can customize your version and include only those chapters or sections you will be teaching.) It is made available free of charge in electronic form (and low cost in printed form) to students around the world. If you have ever thrown up your hands in despair over the spiraling cost of astronomy textbooks, you owe your students a good look at this one./psection id=fs-id1163974535265 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleCurrency and accuracy/h4p id=fs-id1163974175654em data-effect=italicsAstronomy/em has information and images from the New Horizons exploration of Pluto, the discovery of gravitational waves, the Rosetta Mission to Comet C-G, and many other recent projects in astronomy. The discussion of exoplanets has been updated with recent information—indicating not just individual examples, but trends in what sorts of planets seem to be most common. Black holes receive their own chapter, and the role of supermassive black holes in active galaxies and galaxy evolution is clearly explained. Chapters have been reviewed by subject-matter experts for accuracy and currency./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163974216790 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleFlexibility/h4p id=fs-id1163974595332Because there are many different ways to teach introductory astronomy, we have made the text as flexible as we could. Math examples are shown in separate sections throughout, so that you can leave out the math or require it as you deem best. Each section of a chapter treats a different aspect of the topic being covered; a number of sections could be omitted in shorter overview courses and can be included where you need more depth. And, as we have already discussed, you can customize the book in a variety of ways that have never been possible in traditional textbooks./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975829493 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleStudent-centered focus/h4p id=fs-id1163974263993This book is written to help students understand the big picture rather than get lost in random factoids to memorize. The language is accessible and inviting. Helpful diagrams and summary tables review and encapsulate the ideas being covered. Each chapter contains interactive group activities you can assign to help students work in teams and pool their knowledge./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975443777 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleInteractive online resources/h4p id=fs-id1163974380046Interesting “Links to Learning” are scattered throughout the chapters, which direct students to online animations, short videos, or enrichment readings to enhance their learning. Also, the resources listed at the end of each chapter include links to websites and other useful educational videos./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975657558 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleFeature boxes that help students think outside the box/h4p id=fs-id1163975530027A variety of feature boxes within the chapters connect astronomy to the students’ other subjects and humanize the face of astronomy by highlighting the lives of the men and women who have been key to its progress. Besides the math examples that we’ve already mentioned, the boxes include:/pul id=fs-id1163975475098listrong data-effect=boldMaking Connections./strong This feature connects the chapter topic to students’ experiences with other fields, from poetry to engineering, popular culture, and natural disasters./lilistrong data-effect=boldVoyagers in Astronomy./strong This feature presents brief and engaging biographies of the people behind historically significant discoveries, as well as emerging research./lilistrong data-effect=boldAstronomy Basics./strong This feature explains basic science concepts that we often (incorrectly) assume students know from earlier classes./lilistrong data-effect=boldSeeing for Yourself./strong This feature provides practical ways that students can make astronomical observations on their own./li/ul/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975458070 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleEnd-of-chapter materials to extend students’ learning/h4ul id=fs-id1163975717658listrong data-effect=boldChapter Summaries./strong Summaries give the gist of each section for easy review./lilistrong data-effect=boldFor Further Exploration./strong This section offers a list of suggested articles, websites, and videos so students can delve into topics of interest, whether for their own learning, for homework, extra credit, or papers./lilistrong data-effect=boldReview Questions./strong Review questions allow students to show you (or themselves) how well they understood the chapter./lilistrong data-effect=boldThought Questions./strong Thought questions help students assess their learning by asking for critical reflection on principles or ideas in the chapter./lilistrong data-effect=boldFiguring For Yourself./strong Mathematical questions, using only basic algebra and arithmetic, allow students to apply the math principles given in the example boxes throughout the chapter./lilistrong data-effect=boldCollaborative Group Activities./strong This section suggests ideas for group discussion, research, or reports./li/ul/sectionsection id=fs-id1163975841104 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleBeautiful art program/h4p id=fs-id1163975374790Our comprehensive art program is designed to enhance students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs. Here are a few examples./pfigure id=OSC_Astro_23_04_Pulsar class=ui-has-child-figcaptionspan id=fs-id1163975737628 data-type=media data-alt=Model of a Pulsar. In this illustration the Earth is drawn below center, in the path of an approaching “Beam of particles and radiation”. The pulsar, labeled “Neutron star”, is drawn at upper right as a blue sphere. Its rotation axis is drawn vertically upward, with a counter-clockwise arrow around it indicating the direction of rotation. The magnetic field lines are drawn in a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis as concentric red ellipses on either side of the star. The field lines intersect the surface of the star at the “North magnetic pole”, which faces Earth, and the “South magnetic pole”, which faces toward upper right. The beam of radiation is emitted from the poles of the magnetic field, and extend toward upper right and lower left.img src=https://cnx.org/resources/591f7bb666b06a7ce6dcd9ef645de75a160e9506/OSC_Astro_23_04_Pulsar.jpg alt=Model of a Pulsar. In this illustration the Earth is drawn below center, in the path of an approaching “Beam of particles and radiation”. The pulsar, labeled “Neutron star”, is drawn at upper right as a blue sphere. Its rotation axis is drawn vertically upward, with a counter-clockwise arrow around it indicating the direction of rotation. The magnetic field lines are drawn in a plane perpendicular to the rotation axis as concentric red ellipses on either side of the star. The field lines intersect the surface of the star at the “North magnetic pole”, which faces Earth, and the “South magnetic pole”, which faces toward upper right. The beam of radiation is emitted from the poles of the magnetic field, and extend toward upper right and lower left. data-media-type=image/jpeg //spanfigcaptionHow a Pulsar Beam Sweeps over Earth./figcaption/figurefigure id=OSC_Astro_26_02_Milky class=ui-has-child-figcaptionspan id=fs-id1163975474381 data-type=media data-alt=Map of the Milky Way Galaxy. Over-plotted on this data-based illustration of the Milky Way is a coordinate system centered on the Sun, which is located about half way from the center and the bottom of the image. It is a polar coordinate system, with zero degrees straight up from the Sun, 90O to the left, 180O straight down and 270O to the right. Distances are shown as circles of increasing radius centered on the Sun. Distances from 15,000 ly to 75,000 ly are indicated in increments of 5,000 ly. Moving outward from the Sun along the zero degree line are the “Near 3kpc Arm”, “Far 3 kpc Arm” and the “Sagittarius Arm”. Moving outward from the Sun along the 330O line (to the right of zero) are the “Norma Arm” and the “Scutum-Centaurus Arm”. Moving outward from the Sun along the 90O line are are the: “Orion Spur”, “Perseus Arm” and the “Outer Arm”.img src=https://cnx.org/resources/7b587ae641d4dba10463d23a7c39472cb676a9e4/OSC_Astro_26_02_Milky.jpg alt=Map of the Milky Way Galaxy. Over-plotted on this data-based illustration of the Milky Way is a coordinate system centered on the Sun, which is located about half way from the center and the bottom of the image. It is a polar coordinate system, with zero degrees straight up from the Sun, 90O to the left, 180O straight down and 270O to the right. Distances are shown as circles of increasing radius centered on the Sun. Distances from 15,000 ly to 75,000 ly are indicated in increments of 5,000 ly. Moving outward from the Sun along the zero degree line are the “Near 3kpc Arm”, “Far 3 kpc Arm” and the “Sagittarius Arm”. Moving outward from the Sun along the 330O line (to the right of zero) are the “Norma Arm” and the “Scutum-Centaurus Arm”. Moving outward from the Sun along the 90O line are are the: “Orion Spur”, “Perseus Arm” and the “Outer Arm”. data-media-type=image/jpeg //spanfigcaptionStructure of the Milky Way Galaxy./figcaption/figurefigure id=OSC_Astro_08_02_RiftZone class=ui-has-child-figcaptionspan id=fs-id1163974222250 data-type=media data-alt=Illustration of Rift and Subduction Zones. The upper panel shows a rift zone beneath an ocean. At left is a vertical scale of 100 km, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone, which is labeled at the bottom of the diagram. At top center the mid-ocean rift zone is shown, with arrows pointing left and right indicating the direction of plate motion. Directly below the rift zone magma rises up to fill the spaces and cracks between the separating plates, creating mountains and volcanoes. At far right, the thickness of the crust is indicated, consisting of the basalt from the volcanoes and sediment from their erosion. The thickness of the lithosphere is also shown, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partiallyh melted zone. Finally, at the left and right portions of the illustration the older rocks are labeled, with arrows pointing away from the rift zone. The further from the rift, the older the rocks. The lower panel shows a subduction zone beneath an ocean. At left is a vertical scale of 100 km, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone, which is labeled at the bottom of the diagram. At top center the oceanic trench is labeled. To the right of the trench ocean crust and sediments are indicated, with arrows pointing left showing the motion of the crust toward the trench. At the trench, the ocean crust is forced beneath the continental crust, which is labeled on the left of the diagram. The ocean crust moves down toward the partially melted zone. As it does so, the melting ocean crust becomes hot enough to rise up to the surface (to the left of the trench in this diagram) and create the volcanoes of an island chain. At far right the thickness of the lithosphere is shown, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone.img src=https://cnx.org/resources/641b34bd29eae2e18f1c81f7bafd8b8a5ea85658/OSC_Astro_08_02_RiftZone.jpg alt=Illustration of Rift and Subduction Zones. The upper panel shows a rift zone beneath an ocean. At left is a vertical scale of 100 km, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone, which is labeled at the bottom of the diagram. At top center the mid-ocean rift zone is shown, with arrows pointing left and right indicating the direction of plate motion. Directly below the rift zone magma rises up to fill the spaces and cracks between the separating plates, creating mountains and volcanoes. At far right, the thickness of the crust is indicated, consisting of the basalt from the volcanoes and sediment from their erosion. The thickness of the lithosphere is also shown, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partiallyh melted zone. Finally, at the left and right portions of the illustration the older rocks are labeled, with arrows pointing away from the rift zone. The further from the rift, the older the rocks. The lower panel shows a subduction zone beneath an ocean. At left is a vertical scale of 100 km, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone, which is labeled at the bottom of the diagram. At top center the oceanic trench is labeled. To the right of the trench ocean crust and sediments are indicated, with arrows pointing left showing the motion of the crust toward the trench. At the trench, the ocean crust is forced beneath the continental crust, which is labeled on the left of the diagram. The ocean crust moves down toward the partially melted zone. As it does so, the melting ocean crust becomes hot enough to rise up to the surface (to the left of the trench in this diagram) and create the volcanoes of an island chain. At far right the thickness of the lithosphere is shown, from the ocean surface down to the top of the mantle’s partially melted zone. data-media-type=image/jpeg //spanfigcaptionTwo Aspects of Plate Tectonics./figcaption/figurefigure id=OSC_Astro_12_03_GloblPluto class=ui-has-child-figcaptionspan id=fs-id1163975679858 data-type=media data-alt=A global color image of Pluto, showing a dark area in the lower left covered with impact craters, and a larger light area in the center and lower right that is flat.img src=https://cnx.org/resources/8fd305e87120a6b0f065315f60b2c564019de3cf/OSC_Astro_12_03_GloblPluto.jpg alt=A global color image of Pluto, showing a dark area in the lower left covered with impact craters, and a larger light area in the center and lower right that is flat. data-media-type=image/jpeg //spanfigcaptionPluto Close Up./figcaption/figure/section/sectionsection id=fs-id1163974540345 data-depth=1h3 data-type=titleAdditional resources/h3section id=fs-id1163974204189 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleStudent and instructor resources/h4p id=fs-id1163974314312We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, PowerPoint slides, and an instructor answer guide. Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create your account on OpenStax.org. Take advantage of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book./p/sectionsection id=eip-216 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleCommunity Hubs/h4p id=eip-idm357833136OpenStax partners with the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME) to offer Community Hubs on OER Commons – a platform for instructors to share community-created resources that support OpenStax books, free of charge. Through our Community Hubs, instructors can upload their own materials or download resources to use in their own courses, including additional ancillaries, teaching material, multimedia, and relevant course content. We encourage instructors to join the hubs for the subjects most relevant to your teaching and research as an opportunity both to enrich your courses and to engage with other faculty./pp id=eip-501To reach the Community Hubs, visit a href=https://www.oercommons.org/hubs/OpenStax rel=nofollowhttps://www.oercommons.org/hubs/OpenStax/a./p/sectionsection id=fs-id1163974347773 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titlePartner resources/h4p id=fs-id1163975570754OpenStax Partners are our allies in the mission to make high-quality learning materials affordable and accessible to students and instructors everywhere. Their tools integrate seamlessly with our OpenStax titles at a low cost. To access the partner resources for your text, visit your book page on OpenStax.org./p/section/sectionsection id=fs-id1163974288716 data-depth=1h3 data-type=titleAbout the authors/h3section id=eip-id1817475 class=sr-contrib-auth data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleSenior contributing authors/h4p id=fs-id1163974314492strongAndrew Fraknoi, Foothill College/strongspan data-type=newlinebr //spanAndrew Fraknoi is Chair of the Astronomy Department at Foothill College and served as the Executive Director of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific from 1978–1992. His work with the society included editing em data-effect=italicsMercury/em Magazine, em data-effect=italicsUniverse in the Classroom/em, and em data-effect=italicsAstronomy Beat/em. He’s taught at San Francisco State University, Canada College, and the University of California Extension. He is editor/co-author of em data-effect=italicsThe Universe at Your Fingertips 2.0,/em a collection of teaching activities, and co-author of em data-effect=italicsSolar Science,/em a book for middle-school teachers. He was co-author of a syndicated newspaper column on astronomy, and appears regularly on local and national radio. With Sidney Wolff, he was founder of em data-effect=italicsAstronomy Education Review/em. He serves on the Board of Trustees of the SETI Institute and on the Lick Observatory Council. In addition, he has organized six national symposia on teaching introductory astronomy. He received the Klumpke-Roberts Prize of the ASP, the Gemant Award of the American Institute of Physics, and the Faraday Award of the NSTA./pp id=fs-id1163974421836strongDavid Morrison, National Aeronautics and Space Administration/strongspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDavid Morrison is a Senior Scientist at NASA Ames Research Center. He received his PhD in astronomy from Harvard, where he was one of Carl Sagan’s graduate students. He is a founder of the field of astrobiology and is known for research on small bodies in the solar system. He spent 17 years at University of Hawaii’s Institute for Astronomy and the Department of Physics and Astronomy. He was Director of the IRTF at Mauna Kea Observatory. Morrison has held senior NASA positions including Chief of the Ames Space Science Division and founding Director of the Lunar Science Institute. He’s been on science teams for the Voyager, Galileo, and Kepler missions. Morrison received NASA Outstanding Leadership Medals and the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal. He was awarded the AAS Carl Sagan medal and the ASP Klumpke-Roberts prize. Committed to the struggle against pseudoscience, he serves as Contributing Editor of em data-effect=italicsSkeptical Inquirer/em and on the Advisory Council of the National Center for Science Education./pp id=fs-id1163975709151strongSidney C. Wolff, National Optical Astronomy Observatories (Emeritus)/strongspan data-type=newlinebr //spanAfter receiving her PhD from the UC Berkeley, Dr. Wolff was involved with the astronomical development of Mauna Kea. In 1984, she became the Director of Kitt Peak National Observatory, and was director of National Optical Astronomy Observatory. Most recently, she led the design and development of the 8.4-meter Large Synoptic Survey Telescope. Dr. Wolff has published over ninety refereed papers on star formation and stellar atmospheres. She has served as President of the AAS and the ASP. Her recently published book, em data-effect=italicsThe Boundless Universe: Astronomy in the New Age of Discovery/em, won the 2016 IPPY (Independent Publisher Book Awards) Silver Medal in Science./pp id=fs-id1163972229596All three senior contributing authors have received the Education Prize of the American Astronomical Society and have had an asteroid named after them by the International Astronomical Union. They have worked together on a series of astronomy textbooks over the past two decades./p/sectionsection id=eip-id1172001437164 class=contrib-auth data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleContributing authors/h4p id=eip-id1172018279911John Beck, Stanford Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanSusan D. Benecchi, Planetary Science Institutespan data-type=newlinebr //spanJohn Bochanski, Rider Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanHoward Bond, Pennsylvania State University, Emeritus, Space Telescope Science Institutespan data-type=newlinebr //spanJennifer Carson, Occidental Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanBryan Dunne, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaignspan data-type=newlinebr //spanMartin Elvis, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysicsspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDebra Fischer, Yale Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanHeidi Hammel, Association of Universities for Research in Astronomyspan data-type=newlinebr //spanTori Hoehler, NASA Ames Research Centerspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDouglas Ingram, Texas Christian Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanSteven Kawaler, Iowa State Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanLloyd Knox, University of California, Davisspan data-type=newlinebr //spanMark Krumholz, Australian National Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJames Lowenthal, Smith Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanSiobahn Morgan, University of Northern Iowaspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDaniel Perley, California Institute of Technologyspan data-type=newlinebr //spanClaire Raftery, National Solar Observatoryspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDeborah Scherrer, retired, Stanford Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanPhillip Scherrer, Stanford Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanSanjoy Som, Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, NASA Ames Research Centerspan data-type=newlinebr //spanWes Tobin, Indiana University Eastspan data-type=newlinebr //spanWilliam H. Waller, retired, Tufts University, Rockport (MA) Public Schoolsspan data-type=newlinebr //spanTodd Young, Wayne State Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //span/p/sectionsection id=eip-id1171998762180 data-depth=2h4 data-type=titleReviewers/h4p id=eip-id1172001319285Elisabeth R. Adams, Planetary Science Institutespan data-type=newlinebr //spanAlfred N. Alaniz, San Antonio Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanCharles Allison, Texas A&M University–Kingsvillespan data-type=newlinebr //spanDouglas Arion, Carthage Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanTimothy Barker, Wheaton Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanMarshall Bartlett, The Hockaday Schoolspan data-type=newlinebr //spanCharles Benesh, Wesleyan Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanGerald B. Cleaver, Baylor Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanKristi Concannon, King’s Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanAnthony Crider, Elon Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanScott Engle, Villanova Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanMatthew Fillingim, University of California, Berkeleyspan data-type=newlinebr //spanRobert Fisher, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouthspan data-type=newlinebr //spanCarrie Fitzgerald, Montgomery Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanChristopher Fuse, Rollins Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanShila Garg, Emeritus, The College of Woosterspan data-type=newlinebr //spanRichard Gelderman, Western Kentucky Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanLee Hartman, University of Michiganspan data-type=newlinebr //spanBeth Hufnagel, Anne Arundel Community Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanFrancine Jackson, Brown Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJoseph Jensen, Utah Valley Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJohn Kielkopf, University of Louisvillespan data-type=newlinebr //spanJames C. Lombardi, Jr., Allegheny Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanAmy Lovell, Agnes Scott Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanCharles Niederriter, Gustavus Adolphus Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanRichard Olenick, University of Dallasspan data-type=newlinebr //spanMatthew Olmstead, King’s Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanZoran Pazameta, Eastern Connecticut State Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanDavid Quesada, Saint Thomas Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanValerie A. Rapson, Dudley Observatoryspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJoseph Ribaudo, Utica Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanDean Richardson, Xavier University of Louisianaspan data-type=newlinebr //spanAndrew Rivers, Northwestern Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanMarc Sher, College of William & Maryspan data-type=newlinebr //spanChristopher Sirola, University of Southern Mississippispan data-type=newlinebr //spanRan Sivron, Baker Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJ. Allyn Smith, Austin Peay State Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanJason Smolinski, Calvin Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanMichele Thornley, Bucknell Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanRichard Webb, Union Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanTerry Willis, Chesapeake Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanDavid Wood, San Antonio Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanJeremy Wood, Hazard Community and Technical Collegespan data-type=newlinebr //spanJared Workman, Colorado Mesa Universityspan data-type=newlinebr //spanKaisa E. Young, Nicholls State University/p/section/section
